Is Development Best Achieved by Being For, Or Against, Globalization Essay

Is Development Best Achieved by Being For, Or Against, Globalization - Essay ExampleThis essay stresses that globalisation is a word that has been coined recently to stir to an age-old process. Indeed, globalization began in the centuries preceding the New World and the European Age of Discovery. Some of the earliest forms of globalization were through trade and cultural interactions. For instance, the comfort Empire explored parts of Africa, Europe and Asia while trading silk and spices in the 15th century. However, the magnitude of globalization in these times can best be draw by the term minute. Increasing in modern globalization began in the mid-1980s and has risen sharply in the subsequent decades. This sharp rise is attributed to the modern forms of parley such as the internet and the emergence of mobile phones.This paper makes a conclusion that development is best achieved by being against globalization. As illustrated above, the effects of globalization benefit few count ries while causing disadvantages to many. The modern-day phenomenon has failed to eradicate poverty and improve on the lives of those in developing countries. Instead, it has resulted in high unemployment rates and degradation of the standards of living. For example, globalization has forced the shutdown of many startup companies based in developing countries due to their inability to match the expertise and capital of the developed world. Secondly, globalization has resulted in inequality between the developed and developing countries. This compounded with the debt crisis hinders development for the underdeveloped countries.

Is rationalism best understood as a rational phenomenon Essay

Is rationalism best understood as a rational phenomenon - Essay Exampletion of the earth and the stars (the earth is the centre of the universe the stars be fixed to a crystalline sphere and are unchanging and eternal) went on for about one thousand years.Even though scientific quests existed, it was not money box the 16th century that our macrocosm stack actually began to change. A host of new thinkers made radical changes in the world by ushering in rational and scientific investigation. allow us take a look at the important path breaking events in the development of modern and scientific and rational view of the worldThus with the new dawn of Rationalism in the 16th century came a new spirit. The Rationalists held the view that one could arrive at friendship, not by religious faith and revelation, but by reason. Their faith in the human reason brought in a new phenomenon in the thinking trends of the world. Their basic rationale as given by Leibnizs Principle of Sufficient R eason was that everything taking place in this world can be explained rationally and that knowledge (truth) can be gained by deduction. This new phenomenon is in like manner evident in the Rationalists implicit faith in human intellect and interpreting power, which can also be termed as intuition.If a man throws a nut into the air, what can we expect? The ball will come back to the earth. I know that this incident is only confirming the truth about the righteousnesss of the world. But there are two ways to come to this ultimate truth. The man can throw the ball a number of times and comes to a conclusion that the ball does not stay up but comes back to earth, or he can understand that some basic principle or law makes the ball come back to earth.The thinkers belonging to the first school of thought are called Empiricists, who believe that law of gravity can be established by observation. Throwing the ball up countless times will give the same result. So, we see that the empiric ists point of view is dependent upon experience. If experience changes in this regard, the

The Use of Polygraph Tests by Law Enforcement Essay Example for Free

The Use of Polygraph Tests by Law Enforcement EssayResearch Question How Reliable be Lie Detectors?Thesis Statement Lie detectors atomic number 18 not completely reliable.1st SourceWhite Jr., R. D. (2001). Ask me no questions, tell me no lies examining the holds and misuses of the polygraph. Public Personnel Management, 30(4), 483+.This article discusses the different ways by which the polygraph is used and misused, and recommends reliable guidelines for the proper use of polygraphs. It presents both sides of what appears to be a long standing debate on the reliability of lie-detector tests, integrating significant licit developments in the discussion. This is a good article because it out(a)lines the history of polygraph development and use, and contrasts the pros and the cons of using polygraphs in the public sector and in law enforcement. The article, however, may be considered a bit flawed in the sense that it seems to imply that there is nothing wrong with using poly graphs. In this connection, it must be pointed out that the author only if prescribes the use of the polygraph in narrowly-tailored, tightly circumscribed instances, which, upon a deeper analysis, means that the author is against the wholesale, indiscriminate use of polygraphs. In other words, the author seems to imply that as a general proposition, the use of polygraphs or the results taken therefrom are not completely reliable, and may only be considered as such in certain instances. Another strength of the article is that it discusses not only the technical aspects of polygraph use, i.e., its validity and reliability, but also its legal and ethical or moral implications.The article is germane(predicate) to the above topic because it discusses the use of polygraphs not only against criminals, but as against the individuals that compose the public sector. It lays down the premise that despite the controversy regarding the use of polygraphs in the past, at present, its use has bec ome more widespread and is applied not only to criminals or suspected criminals, but also to governing employees and in government agencies, who are on the right side of the law.With respect to the articles relevance to the question on the reliability of lie detectors and the statement that lie detectors are not completely reliable, as mentioned, the article presents both sides of the argument, and the conclusion implies that, in fact, lie detectors are not completely reliable because if they were, they could be used at any given instance, at any given time, without having to prescribe specific parameters for its use.The main argument for the continued use of polygraphs is that in numerous facial expressions, the physiological responses evoke by questioning indicate the guilt or innocence of a person, because of the way people are supposed to react when they are lying or telling the truth. The easiest criticism against the reliability of characterizing outcomes such as increase i n pulse is that each person reacts differently to a particular situation.Hence, the person may be telling the truth, but he may feel nervous at being questioned and being strapped to a machine, so his pulse may be uneven. Studies conducted, particularly by the Office of Technology Assessment or OTA, show that there is a large variance in the cases where the individual who was tested via polygraph was held to pick up been telling the truth when he was actually lying, or when he was found to be lying when he was actually telling the truth.Also assailed is the lack of reproduction of the people who operate polygraphs, and the lack of operational guidelines in the actual use of the machines, as well as the use of what are called countermeasures that enable certain individuals to bugger off the polygraph. In conclusion, the author concedes that reliable or not, polygraphs will still be used, and thus proposes some(prenominal) tests or criteria by which to determine whether or not a p olygraph should be used, such as the existence of a compelling public interest, the presence of independently corroborating evidence, and the imposition of stricter controls with respect to actual interrogation. The use of such criteria could excuse the inherent unreliability of polygraph testing.2nd Source Dripps, D. A. (1996). Police, plus perjury, equals polygraphy. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86(3), 693 to 716. The article presents the authors theory that making polygraph examination results allowable in evidence as a general proposition will ward off the evil of perjury committed by law enforcement agents. The arguments presented by the proponent are very structured and organized. The author paints a very convincing picture of the disadvantages and prejudice brought about by the current general encounter on the inadmissibility of polygraph test results vis--vis police testimony with respect to suppression hearings.The only weakness of the article is that it con cedes, even if merely for the sake of argument, that polygraph testing results are principally unreliable, but they should be used anyway to at least ensure that policemen do not commit perjury on the stand when they testify as to the factual milieu of the case and the seizure of evidence. It is a good article to contrast with the first because the arguments are similar but the conclusions and implications are different, and the details should be examined more closely to determine why, despite the similarities, there still exists a discrepancy or difference in opinion. The article is germane(predicate) to the above-mentioned topic, because it relates to the use of polygraph tests by and against law enforcement officers. Like the first article, it presents the use of polygraphs not only as against suspected criminals, but even against those on the other side of the law. It is relevant to the question on the reliability of polygraph testing and on the thesis that polygraph tests are not completely reliable because it argues against the thesis by citing the rules on evidence. In the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, the Supreme Court held that the use of expert testimony based on valid science is admissible in evidence. Despite the controversy as to its reliability, several scientific agencies have attested to the valuable use of polygraphs and have provided for acceptable margins of error after all, nothing is perfect, and to expect that polygraph results are a hundred percent reliable would be an exercise in futility. With the allowable margin of error, polygraph results are made more reliable. The article points out the background behind the OTA study it was undertaken at the behest of the legislature on a move to be more stringent in regulating the use of polygraphs. Many government institutions and agencies rely on polygraphs to back up them ferret out the truth, such as the CIA, the FBI, and the Department of Defense.The article stresses t hat in general, polygraph test results can be relied upon, because it involves a science that has been empirically and objectively tested, and when the testing is done properly, the margin for error is acceptably low.In the specific context of suppression hearings, the admissibility of polygraph results as explained through expert testimony would better protect the rights of the accused, as many policemen are unfortunately wont to lie even under oath to ensure that crucial evidence does not get thrown out and the case against the accused does not fall apart. At the very least, the admission of polygraph results would make law enforcement officers, and criminals, think twice about lying on or off the stand, and would contribute in some way to the proper administration of justice.

Confederation and Constitution Essay Example for Free

Confederation and composing EssayThe Articles of Confederation, formally known as the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, refers to an agreement between the xiii founding states that first formed the United States of America as a confederacy of sovereign states. The Articles of Confederation had served as the first U.S. constitution (Merrill, 1959). The states under the confederation were Virginia, South Carolina, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Georgia, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Delaw ar and Maryland. In 1787, a constitutional convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation as they contained so many flaws, which would ready fatally affected the confederation (Wendel, 1981). However, the convention ended up abandoning the Articles and drafted a new constitution which had a lots stronger national political sympathies. After so much tussle and debating, eleven of the thirteen states ratified the cons titution which led to the formation of a new form of governing body for the United States of America (Kermit, 1987). The following are similarities and differences of the Articles of Confederation and the piece of music.Consenting of postAccording to the Articles of Confederation, the legislature of each state had no specific means of choosing voters. The delegates of each state were to sign the Articles, but save do as directed by their legislature (Young, 1977). Their legislature did non provide for them to vote in such agreements indeed, they only wait until instructed so. This shows that the Articles of Confederation did not provide how it could be ratified, but indirectly implied it the duty of the legislatures of the various states.This meant that the people had no direct influence over the form of national government be put in place because their representatives were not specifically elected for that purpose.The musical composition provided for conventions in the stat es whereby delegates are chosen by people for the purpose of considering ratification. Therefore, the Constitution had specifically addressed its ratification in Article VII (Maier, 2010). The provision that ratification by nine states were to effect it meant by passing the state legislature and handout to the people for governing consent. In summary, in the Articles of Confederation, consent of power was from the state while in the constitution the power to govern came from the people to the government.Type of subject field GovernmentUnder the Articles of Confederation, the government was more of a constitutional confederacy, whereas the Constitution provided constitutional federal republic (Merrill, 1959). Under both, the government was a constitutional government because it was codified in writing. The government structure between the two, however, differed. An association of States under a common government formed the confederacy. Each member state retained its sovereignty le aving the national government with very little authority over the individual state (Young, 1977).The matter government powers tilted towards foreign traffic for the benefit of all the states. This meant that the subject area Government could not coerce individual states to do anything. The constitution provided for a federalism structure (Kermit, 1987). This ensured a more equated power communion between the National government and the state government. The National government, therefore, had sufficient sovereignty to execute its mandate while ensuring the same for the state government.Representation in the National GovernmentIn the Articles of Confederation, indirect popular representation was in effect as the representatives were appointed by an elected state legislature (Wendel, 1981). On the otherwise hand, the Constitution effected direct popular representation for both the states and the citizens. The people, through popular vote, formed the House of Representatives while the states ,through elected legislature, appointed the Senate (Kermit, 1987). The representation fit in to the constitution was in accordance with the structure of Federalism.Division of Powers in the National GovernmentArticles of Confederation provided one legislative body (unicameral) with all powers of national government which was the Congress Assembly. All decisions and relations were derived from the Congress (Wendel, 1981). Matters of law, settling disputes, foreign relations, including all the others issued from Congress (Merrill, 1959). However, Congress did not have the superpower to implement laws, and had limited ability to judge on law or disputes because a dedicated judiciary was not in place. The Congress, however, appointed courts to preside on piracy and High Seas crimes, contract disputes between States and individuals from different States.The Constitution, however, provided for division of power of the National government into troika distinct branches, each with specified duties. The Legislature composed of the Senate and House of Representatives is mandated with making laws (Maier, 2010). The administrator was to enforce laws with the President while the Judiciary and lowly courts is to judge using the law. A mechanism was besides provided to each of the three branches to view the power on other two and encroachments into other branches powers.Powers of CongressThe Articles of Confederation provided specifically enumerated powers to the congress which included regulating foreign commerce. Congress could not, however, regulate interstate commerce (Wendel, 1981). The Constitution powers carried over from the Articles of Confederation included the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce amongst others. nigh of the powers remained the same although others differed. Among the powers included in the Constitution but slay in the Articles of Confederation are taxing, regulating interstate and foreign commerce, making of unifor m laws on bankruptcy, raising and supporting an Army and Navy and establishment of inferior courts (Kermit, 1987). Congress Assembly lacked all these powers under the Articles of confederation.Revenue RaisingThe Articles of Confederation provided that National Government should request for funds from the individual states (Wendel, 1981). The Constitution, however, gave the National Government power to tax. A major shortcoming of the Articles of Confederation was a failure of providing for the National Government to raise its own tax revenues (Young, 1977). Congress assembly requested funds from states for National treasury. This resulted in the states failing to comply as requested. This made the United States lag on paying its debts and meeting its obligations. Under the Constitution, Congress could raise revenue for cost and operations of the National Government, namely, common defense and general welfare of the United States (Maier, 2010). However, some restrictions were imposed regarding revenue raising of the National Government. The provision of raising revenue for National government ensured it did not rely on other entities namely, the states to execute its duties.Enforcement of Federal LawsThe Articles of Confederation did not provide for the National government to enforce its laws thus it had to rely on States for this function (Wendel, 1981). Laws, treaties, acts or agreements passed by Congress Assembly were up to states solely to enforce (Merrill, 1959). This resulted in them only enforcing what favored and suited to them. The Constitution on its part, gave the executive branch through the President power to enforce laws (Maier, 2010). This provision enabled speedy execution of laws and execution of the government requirements.Analysis of Drafting the ConstitutionOn May 25, 1787, fifty five delegates of the United States convened in Philadelphia with intent of creating a new and better government. Initially, Virginians Edmund Randolph and James M adison presented a constitutional end called the Virginia stick out. The proposal provided for a bicameral (two chambers) legislature (Kermit, 1987). The lower house was to be chosen by the citizens, and the upper house was chosen by the lower house. In addition, a national executive and judiciary were to be selected by the legislature. The plan aimed at creating a strong central government. The debate began with the delegates of the large states supporting the Plan while those from smaller states opposed it.The smaller states felt that the larger states would dominate national legislature for the number of legislative representatives was to be determined by population. Some delegates also had fear that a firm central government would overpower the states restricting their individual liberties. Weeks of debating saw another proposal from William Patterson of New Jersey (Maier, 2010). This was referred to as the New Jersey Plan. This plan modified the Articles of Confederation and proposed a unicameral legislature having equal representation regardless of states population, a two-person executive branch and a single body of the judiciary. Smaller states delegates and proponents of weak government were for the New Jersey Plan while bigger states delegates opposed it.The ensuing stalemate was broken by Roger Sherman of Connecticut through the Connecticut Plan. The plan incorporated both previous proposals. Its proposal of a bicameral legislature with a population-based lower chamber and an main(a) upper chamber with equal representation satisfied both the small state and large state delegates. Other com insures included legalization of the slave craftiness until 1808 and returning of escaped slaves to their owners. Slavery was assumed to come to an end by itself. During census, slaves were to be enumerated as three-fifths of a person (Kermit, 1987). This resolved the debate on determine slaves between northerners who were against it and southerners who were for equal counting of slaves. Many delegates opposed people electing the president while others supported the election of the executive by the citizens. An Electoral College was formed which called for a body of electors selected by each states legislature to vote for a president.The Debate over Ratification between the Federalists and the Anti-FederalistsRatification of the constitution also resulted in a major division between federalists and anti-federalists. The Anti-Federalists such as James Hancock feared that the National Government, the Executive branch and Congress held too much power. They also argued that the national government could maintain the army during times of peace (Maier, 2010).Contrary to the Anti-Federalists, the Federalists led by James Madison argued that power separation into three independent branches protected peoples rights as each of the branches represented a different aspect of the people (Hamilton, Madison Jay, 1982). Because of the equality of the branches, none of the groups could check out another. They also argued that listing the rights exposed the people as it would likely result in the government violating those not listed. The final compromise for ratification saw the federalists promise drafting of the bill of rights once Congress met.ReferencesHamilton, A. Madison, J. Jay, J. (1982). The Federalist Papers. New York Bantam Classics.Kermit, H., (1987). The Formation and ratification of the Constitution Major historicalinterpretations. New York Garland Pub.Maier, P. (2010). Ratification The mountain Debate the Constitution, 1787-1788. New York Simon Schuster.Merrill, J. (1959). The Articles of Confederation An Interpretation of the Social-ConstitutionalHistory of the American Revolution, 1774178, p. 178179Wendel, T. (1981). The Articles of Confederation. National Review. Vol. 33(13) p. 768-770.Young, R. L. (1977). The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. American BarAssociation Journal. Vol. 63(11), p. 157 2.

Educational Broadcasting Essay Example for Free

commandal Broadcasting Essay radiocommunication became highly popular in the 1930s in Canada. A heated debate in the parliament helped Prime Minister Mackenzie King to set up a commission to bring forth Canadian broadcasting system. Canadas first ne iirk broadcast was in 1927. King addressed the nation from Parliament Hill. His speech gave indication that radio could be a valuable way for communication. It as well deeply influenced his political career. fosteringal broadcasting was developed both at the federal and barbarian level. This was marked by tension surrounded by the two legal powers. This paper studies the history of schoolingal broadcasting in Canada.In 1927 the University of Albertas Department of extension was given the license to run the radio station CKUA. By 1944 the Department of Telephones purchased and operated the station with the university retaining the license. The university withal provided the programming for a fixed number of hours a day. The federal presidential term in 1946 declared that broadcasting would be the responsibility of the government (Samuel, 1975). Educational broadcasts on radio began in 1940 after the Carnegie Foundation donated a grant of five thousand dollars to the B. C Department of Education.Its purpose was to study the use of broadcasting in rural teaching. A school broadcasting department was created which ran programs for Grades 1 through 8. The CBC provided the crews art object the Department of education provided the creative elements of the program. The service offered programs in music, science and history. It was later expanded to include the Western provinces of Canada. Educational radio began in Ontario in 1949. The Announcing and communicate Production course at the Ryerson Institute of Technology was operating the CJRT-FM. The station provided educational serve to schools and the public.The license was help up to 1972. The general university budget had the CJRT funded as a special b udget (Samuel, 1975). The government recognized the importance of electronic communication theory in Quebec. A bill regarding radio broadcasting was passed on exhibit 1945. However nothing could be achieved because of a serious dispute between the federal and provincial government. The Department of Education began producing two hour radio programs in Nova Scotia in 1928. This was done in association with Halifax station CHMS. English, French, History, Music and Drama were the subjects discussed in the broadcast.Performers and actors also participated in the program. The programs were intended to support teachers. Formal educational radio programs were broadcast in 1942 by a depicted object advisory council. These educational programs were based on the provincial curricula. They were produced in cooperation with education authorities in the assorted provinces. These policies reflected the constitutional position regarding the division of powers between the federal and provincial governments. The first experimental educational video recording broadcasts began in 1954.The CBC was associated with Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Television broadcasts were designed to be used by students and teachers. They consisted of instructions and formal educational programs which were linked directly with the provincial curricula. These educational programs were beneficial for the provincial communities. The Metropolitan Educational Association was make in 1959 to use telly broadcasting to serve the educational needs of Toronto. The CBLT in Toronto and CHCH in offered Hamilton Formal university courses.General educational programs like Two For physics and The Nature of Things were highly popular. CBC television also presented sixty half(a) hours programs each year for in school use. A yearly series of half hour programs called University of the Air was broadcasted each week during the 1960s. Studios were also connected with classrooms and labor atories using closed circuit television (Toogood, 1969). Channel 19 in Toronto was reserved for educational purposes in 1961. An educational television section was established in 1965 by the Ontario Minister of Education. This section was within the Curriculum Branch of the Ministry.There were plans for educational television. Ontarios department of education applied for a license to open an educational television station. However the federal government refused the license. However a compromise was reached between the CBC and Ontario government. The CBC was allowed to apply to the new regulatory agency for broadcasting license on behalf of the Ontario Department of Education. Audio visual materials were made by Radio Quebec which was an audio visual exertion house. During the late 1960s it expanded its production to distribution of its materials.The Calgary and Regional Educational Television Association was incorporated in 1967. unkindly circuit channels from the Instructional Te levision Fixed Service Band were used to transmit programs to 25 Calgary locations (Toogood, 1969). Memorial University in Newfoundland is a leading producer and distributor of educational television programs since the 1960s. It has produced programs for closed circuit use on university campuses. It has also produced programs for the universitys education division. It has contributed in using television for distance education and teleconferencing.Educational television programs were designed by the Nova Scotias Department of Education to teachers and students. Production facilities allow been owned by the CBC. The Department of Education has produced the programs. Video tapes engender been developed for provinces. Teachers have also been provided these video tapes for classroom use. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick have used video tape and film for educational purposes (Toogood, 1969). The 1960s saw a renewed interest in the development of national educational television se rvice. The Canadian Radio-Television Commission was established in 1968.Educational broadcasting came under the jurisdiction of the Commission. The Canadian Educational Broadcasting Agency was established by the introduction of bill C-179. The agency held licenses and operated educational broadcasting facilities. The provincial authorities were responsible for production and programming. The federal government was responsible for transmission of the programs. The bill was withdrawn due to provincial pressure. The Quebec Broadcasting Bureau Act effectively updated an unused 1945 act on Radio Quebec. The act proposed broader powers than the proposed Federal bill C-179.The federal bill was not passed. This ended the phase for the establishment of a national education service. Ontario and Alberta pressured the federal government for the establishment of a provincially owned and operated educational television service. An interim government specified that the CBC would provide educationa l facilities and provincial educational communications authorities provide the programming. Broadcasting received undertaking under the regulatory power of the CRTC. At least one channel was obliged to make uncommitted for educational programming (Twomey, 1978).Provincial educational television was developed by TVOntario and Radio-Quebec in the 1970s. The CBC was awarded a license to act as an agent for the Ontario Ministry of Education by the CRTC. This also led to Channel 19 to become the first UHF channel in Canada. Educational television service used whatsoever format and program. Entertaining broadcast schedules were developed by the provincial educational television. This led to them breaking out of the lecture format. There was much criticism and emulation from conventional broadcasters.The right of the provincial authorities to decide what is educational has been upheld by the CRTC (Twomey, 1978). In 1972 the OECA applied for a broadcasting license. The OECA is a crown co rporation that reports to the provincial legislature through a minister. The policy is made by the independent Board of Directors appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council. There is no direct government involvement in policy or programming decisions. The OECA distributes programs through video tape and their utilization in class rooms. New electronic technologies have been developed and used in marketing and utilization.Services have also been broaden since 1973. Programs have also been sent to cable systems. TVOntario has become a popular broadcasting service. It has provided British dram, classic movies, documentaries and talk shows. It has become an appreciated public broadcasting services for Ontario citizens. French language programming has also been a part of the TVO broadcast. A separate service for the French biotic community was initiated during the 1980s. Advertising is not carried on the English and French service. supporting comes from government grants and sale of programs (Twomey, 1978). CJRT-FM also evolved in the 1970s.Ryersons reenforcement was changed by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities. There was no allowance for the radio station. There were announcements that the CJRT would cease its operations. However political activity saved the station. In 1973 the CJRT-FM was established as a separate and independent corporation. The CJRT-FM was a private non profit corporation and had its own independent Board of Directors. The station provided some university level courses. However most of its program content was classical and jazz music. Radio Quebec distinguished itself from other television services.It adhered to the concept of educational programming but did not bind itself by any federal definition. Education was part of culture and its main objective was to influence the culture of Quebec. During the 1970s a schedule of television programs was distributed directly into the cable facilities in Quebec City. During this time tw o UFH television stations were also established. Over the years the use of satellite distribution to transmitters to cable was initiated. Tele-Quebec has assay to reflect the culture of Quebec in the provinces regional aspects. Quebec has its own educational television broadcasting.Program formats are offered without contextualization. The Alberta government announced the setup of an Alberta Educational Communications Corporation in 1972. Two local educational television projects were taken by the corporation. It reported directly to the government. The provincial government was responsible for funding the television service and CKUA radio. ACCESS Network radio broadcasted at least twelve percent of its programming for education. The service has provide mix of music, news and community oriented programs. Programs were mainly formal educational programs designed for classroom use.It also began to act as the purchasing and distributor of audio visual material for the education sector (Foster, 1982) The Saskatchewan Educational Communications Corporation was created in 1974. It became known as the SaskMedia. The corporation provided audio visual and distribution service to the Ministry of Education. The 1980s saw affix success for provincial educational television services. Signal distribution increased the coverage via satellites to cable. Formal and loose educational programs were delivered to cable companies throughout the province by ACCESS Network television.The schedule consisted of English language provincial services. There was a mix of children programs, school programs, British dramas, classic movies and talk. CKUA and CJRT-FM were educational radio services established themselves by mixing classical music, jazz and talk. CKUA enjoyed government funding. The CJRT had to sell advertising and use other sources for revenue generation. Saskatchewan in the 1980s still had no prospects of educational television. However in 1984 the University of Regina del ivered credit courses to five centers. This instruction service was expanded in the succeeding years.They were offered by a new agency, Saskatchewan Communications Network. It offered two educational television services. Formal services for closed circuit from the University of Regina and traditional educational services were offered for the general public. The acquaintance Network of the West Communications billet (KNOW) was established in 1980 by a Cabinet Minute under the Societies Act of British Columbia. This was a public television service. It provided institutional and formal education system. It provided services which were complementary to the system.All programs were supported and developed by educational institutions and the government. Atlantic Canada in the 1980s also saw pressure for the creation of educational television. The CRTC in 1980 called for extension of services to remote communities. The Atlantic Television Network established the ATV-2. This was an altern ative service providing satellite for cable television in the Atlantic region. It would broadcast four hours of educational programs on weekdays. It has become a provider of post secondary learning opportunities in the region (Foster, 1982).Manitoba has seen little activity in the development of provincial educational television. The province has used the CBC as the main public broadcasting service. The department of education in Manitoba cooperated with the CBC in providing schools programming. The 1990s was a decade of steady growth for educational television. Direct to home satellites made educational services available to the entire populations. The services were extended to the entire country. Other provincial educational television services like ACCESS, the Knowledge Network and SCN also expanded their educational services in the provinces.TVOntario and Tele-Quebec confront some government cutbacks but this did not impact their educational broadcasting services. The 1990s chan ged the situation for educational television service in British Columbia. The plain-spoken Learning Agency of British Colombia was established. It dedicated its segments to the college, university and school learning. New electronic systems were used to effectively deliver distance learning services throughout the province. The Knowledge Network became part of the Open Learning Agency. It also maintained a connection with the formal courses.Traditional education television evolved with childrens programming, British drama, documental and talk shows (Rosen, 2002). The SCN in Saskatchewan developed a program schedule which funded and broadcasted locally produced documentaries. This reflected the local character and priorities of the province. These services were distributed by satellite to cable systems across the province. Funding came from yearly government grants. In Atlantic Canada educational services were provided by the ATV-2 network. Various universities in Alberta Canada us e formal credit course for broadcast on this service.In Alberta provincial educational television and radio changed in the 1990s. In 1995 a new ACCESS television was introduced. It provided a new programming and care model. The look and style were also modern and youthful. There was a broader range of popular programming. Revenues were generated through the sale of broadcast air time. Educational products and services were also sold. Non commercial pre school programming was broadcasted in the morning. There was also a mix of non commercial ministry programs and US produced drama and movies. Traditional documentaries and magazine shows were also shown in the evening.Programs from the US were also broadcasted (Rosen, 2002). Specialty television in the 1990s was undergoing some rapid extension. Development work for a Canadian national educational television service was begun in 1991. The Canadian Learning Television was established. It was an adult oriented educational service emphas izing lifelong learning. It included two provincial educational broadcasters. Canadian Learning Television is Canadas only national educational television broadcaster. It was launched in September 1999. It has financed specialty services by cable proofreader fees and commercial advertising.It works with universities and colleges. It also works with provincial educational broadcasters (Rosen, 2002). The twenty first century has seen provincial educational television services, radio services and national educational television performing very well. Despite fears of privatization this has not yet materialized. Radio and Television have become an important part of Canadian life. They have offered entertainment and education for thousands of Canadians. Canadas educational broadcasting services have provided programming to its varied audiences. There have been feelings of loyalty and connection with these services.The appeal of educational broadcasting has been increasing in Canada. High quality educational programming has been provided which has been instrumental in spreading literacy. It has also helped in providing distance learning services to remote communities. Educational broadcasting has helped in responding to specific provincial needs and realities. Educational broadcasting has come a long way since its genesis. Formal and informal educational services have helped spread knowledge and enlightenment to many communities in Canada. They are an essential part of Canadas cultural policy.

Platos View On The Souls

Platos View On The SoulsPlatos ideas about the individual were revolutionary and extremely advanced for his duration, as with most of Platos philosophies, yet on the other hand they appear to be both self-conflicting and flawed. In this essay I will proceed to besidesify this statement.Plato was a Greek philosopher with many views on life and existence. Platos views on the mind consistency distinction have been the target of many criticisms since his time. In the republic, he formulated ideas on the allegory of the cave and the theory of the forms. He believed that our existence on earth was merely a shadow of a higher spiritual plane, our bodies just a vessel, or rase looked upon as a cage trapping the disposition and restricting it from this higher plain.1Plato was a dualist and so believed that when the material tree trunk dies the instinct lives on. He believed that we be dual creatures the psyche is distinct from the body and vice versa. The body has extension (it tak es up berth) and is impermanent it has a beginning and will have an end. The soul takes up no space and is immortal it pre-existed our body and will live for invariably. Plato does not really believe that the soul lives but that there is a part of existence that exists outside time. Platos views, are best exposit in his analogy allegory of the cave in which it depicts a pris mavinr that escapes the cave metaphorical for this life- and goes on to discover everything he in unitary case believed in was only a fraction of the truth Platos main philosophy stemmed from the cave and was about knowing the theory of the forms. Here, he thought that the soul is immaterial and is immortal, however the body- being physical- could be doubted as it was part of the empirical world.Plato believed that the soul was immortal it was in existence before the body and it continues to exist when the body dies. Plato thought this to be true because of his Theory of Forms. Plato thought we had such ide as as a perfect circle, not because we have seen bingle before or that it had been described to us, but the image was already known to us through the world of Forms. This theory also explained how the soul was generated the soul already lived a life in the world of forms, a world that cannot be destruct as the body can be destroyed. Once you die, the soul is free for a short time before being entrapped once again in another body.2Plato was also a rationalist. He believed that you only have true knowledge and understanding of man through reason. The physical world is inferior, or course, to the realm of Forms. Any knowledge we have of the physical world is through our senses and is subjective and inexact.Platos idea of the soul is his dualist position, accept that body and soul are fundamentally distinct. His theory on the soul was produced in his book Phaedrus. In it Plato was most concerned with demonstrating the immortality of the soul and its ability to choke bodied death. He proposed the idea that, like Aristotles idea of motion, whatever is the source of its own motion or animation must be immortal.3Plato was writing at a time in Greek philosophy where popular opinion believed that the soul did not survive death, and that it dispersed into nothing, like breath or smoke. Plato believed that the soul must be immortal by the very nature of being the source of its own animation, for it is only through a psyche that things can be living rather than dead. The souls are both animated and at the same time the source of its own animation. Plato also states that the soul is an intelligible and non-palpable article that cannot be destroyed or dispersed, much like his ideas about forms of non-tangible realities such as beauty or courage. In a more simplistic sense, the soul is a form and is outside time in that way.The argument from affinity, as Plato posited in Phaedrus, states that because the soul is an invisible and intangible entity, as opposed to a comple x and tangible body the two must be distinct and separate. Plato believed that which is composite must be divisible, sensible and transient and that which is simple must be invisible, indivisible and immutable.4Forms view as a resemblance to the simple, immutable entities, such as beauty however a beautiful painting is transient and palpable. The body shows an affinity to the composite by nature of its mortality and mutability just as the soul shows a similar affinity to immortality and indivisibleness. To further emphasise the point, Plato writes when the soul investigates by itself it passes into the realm of what is pure, ever existing, immortal and unchanging, and being akin to this, it always stays with it whenever it is by itself and can do so it ceases to stray and remains in the same state as it is in touch with things of the same kind (Phaedo, 79c-d). He argues that just as the bodys prime function is to understand the material and transient world, the functioning of the soul as an entity of rational and self-reflective thought demonstrates its affiliation with a simple and immutable world showing that the two are distinct. However Plato does not explore the criticisms of this argument that just because an entity portrays an affiliation, does not inescapably require it to be as that which it affiliates.Plato believed that the soul, if it were to be the animator of all living things, must be responsible for a persons mental or psychological activities and responses. For the soul cannot be the reason for life, yet at the same time limited in its influence over the bodies in which it animates. However this provides peerless of the most serious and potentially defeating criticisms of Platos views on the soul. He fails to address the issue of the interrelationship between body and soul, if they are indeed distinct. He doesnt mention if the soul act as controller of a lifeless body, or is there more to the body than simply the material. Moreover the arg ument from affiliation would suggest that the body is concerned with the material, composite world whilst the soul is concerned with the invisible and simple world. If this is the case then the soul cannot, following from Platos argument, have any interaction with the material, bodily world for then it ceases to be simple and immutable.An argument from memory, which Plato first put forward when discussing his theory of the world of the forms, also serves his theory of the soul. Perfect forms, such as equality, are knowable a priori we have no need for experience to tell us whether two lines are equal length. We must, therefore, know these things through recollection of these perfect forms. Therefore, the soul must have pre-existed the body to know these facts a priori.Platos argument from confrontations was based on his idea that everything in the observable world has an black eye effect. As Plato writes in his draw Phaedo If something smaller comes to be it will come from somet hing larger before, which became smaller (Phaedo, 270d). In other words everything we can know has an opposite asleep and awake hot and cold. Similarly they are reversible, just as one goes from a state of sleep to a state of being awake, one can do the opposite. Plato argued that if this were the case, then the same should apply to life and death. Just as one can go from life to death, one must be able to go from death to life and if this statement is correct, then the soul must survive this transition and as a consequence possess immortality and judicial separation from the body. He believed that animation and life was integral to the very notion of the soul, just like heat is a part of fire thus it cannot be destroyed and is eternal.A separate argument from his theory of opposites was that of a similar theory of the forms and their opposites. He stated that no entity can consist of contradictory forms, and thus one form must necessarily exist and the other not in any particular entity. The number five cannot possess both the form of even and odd by adding or subtracting one the form of odd is displaced by even. Plato wrote so fire as the cold approaches will either go remote or be destroyed it will never venture to admit coldness and remain what it was, fire and cold The soul must share in the form of life, for we know that those living have a soul. Therefore, it cannot contain the form of death also, for this would be in direct conflict of life. The soul must ontologically necessarily exist, and must therefore be immortal.Contemporary analysis of Platos views on the soul produces many criticisms there is a clear chronological confusion as his work progresses with the soul starting as an intelligible and non-tangible item, yet progressing to where the soul becomes a complex tripartite entity that is trapped in the material body, yet still impulse to enter the world of the forms. Plato demonstrates a contradictory and muddled thought process that attempts to find resolutions for flaws in his thinking. The idea of an imperfect entity entering the perfect realm of the forms is one such logical fallacy in his argument and he does this by seeking to find reason and justification for his closure, rather than seeking a conclusion based on all of his own logic.

Theoretical Perspectives Within Psychology

Theoretical Perspectives Within psychologyShowing a big(p)er collar for the different theoretical perspectives at heart psychology, brings the psychologist or scientist closer in understanding the complexity of gentle nature and the variety of personalities within society. This paper will focus on 6 of the perspectives see concomitant 1 for a list of theoretical perspectives.The different theoretical perspectives of psychology fuddle come to endure finished the works of different schools of thoughts, who form worked on assessing behavioural patterns as well as military personnel nature. Each of these aras pretend focused on the byzantine human mind in a consider of different ways, with the process of employing a range of regularitys to dismantle the foreland and human mind. This has revealed remarkable details of the different human personalities. One of the distinguished theoretical perspectives is known as the cognitive begin/Learning. This field has been influ enced by John Watson and his Baby Al look into, Skinners rat experiments (operant conditioning) and Albert Banduras social cognitive surmise and experiments. Because the cognitive approach is scientific, psychologists within this field typic al maviny use laboratory experiments under strictly controlled conditions, to hire sort, which critics beg lack ecological validity. Behaviourists concur criticised the cognitive approach, because they believe individuals ar born a blank slate, and not with cognitive functions like perception and memory. Fin wholey, it does not always place impressiveness on the physical and environ noetic factors when find behaviour, like biological psychology and behaviourism do. In the 1960s Albert Bandura observed that submiting is sometimes possible without reinforcement, if the learner observes the behaviour of others and imitate it.Psychodynamics, proposed by Sigmund Freud, came to come through to describe the processes of the mind as flows of psychological energy within a complex brain. Freuds theories were clinically derived, as they were based on what his forbearings told him during therapy. This bea studies the interrelationship among personality and the mind, by focusing on the conscious and the unconscious entities of the human mind. Based on Freuds sentiments, ego lies at the core of all psychological processes, where human behaviour displays the emotional processes active within a individuals mind. Freuds psycho abbreviation was the original psychodynamic theory, but overall the psychodynamic approach includes all theories that were based on his ideas, engrafted by Adler (1927), Erikson (1950) and Jung (1964) (Simply psychology (2007) online). Within medical praxiss, psychodynamic therapies rely upon a theory of inner conflict within an individual, wherein repressed behaviours and emotions come to the surface in the patients consciousness. The psychodynamic therapist would normally be using this approach to treat the patient for clinical depression or anxiety related disorders. The greatest criticism of this approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour, as the theories be subjective one jakesnot scientifically test the unconscious mind. Also, when reading about his research it becomes clear, that his case studies focused, in detail, on individuals who were oft middle aged women from Vienna. Thus, the psychodynamic perspective becomes unfalsifiable because the theories stinkernot be empirically investigated.Biological psychology can be defined as followed the turn over of way and experience in statuss of genetics, evolution, and physiology, especially the physiology of the dying(p) system. (Helium (2009) online)Thus, one can state that the biological perspective uses biology as an approach to understand animal and human bearing. It is important to realise, in order to understand how psychology and biology can coexist, that animals and humanity have the ability to evolve as a result of their milieu in order to secure their survival. Thus, they can change to better adapt their innovative surroundings, which is an important factor.This ara is relevant to the study of psychology in the following way. The proportional method, looks upon comparing and studying different species, which in the end can give us knowledge in understanding human behaviour. Physiology focuses on the nervous system, comprising brain and spinal cord, and the endocrine system, comprising a number of ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream influence intellectual processes and behaviour in humans and animals. Many biological scientists straight off believe that these structures are actually the source of conscious awareness and that they do not just shape consciousness (William James n.k. online). One of the fundamental biological processes, which have important implications for psychology is genetic transmission/inheritance, ie. the n ature-nurture problem relies heavily upon what geneticists have revealed that can be given from parents to offspring, and how genetic factors can intermingle with environmental factors. Each of the above mentioned aspects, the comparative, the physiological and the genetic can all contribute to condoneing human behaviour.Through research on the nervous system, scientists have been able to analyse brain functioning under a range of conditions, while also being able to map its relationship to human psychology. Hence, behaviour is regarded as a result of biological and biochemical processes. It is evident that this perspective has expanded significantly in recent historic period as the engineering science used to study the nervous system and brain has gradually become more advanced. MRI and PET scans are daily used to look at the effects of drugs, diseases and brain damage, and study its effect on cognitive functioning and general behaviour. Criticisms of this theory are, amongst o thers, that it often uses a reductionist approach because it specifically focuses on neurological processes. Also, it does not assimilate other possible explanations of behaviour into account like cognitive processes or the impact of the surrounding environment. The biological approach supports a number of theories that originally establish and created the physiological/biological perspective. Dualism, first used by Descartes, argues that the mind and body are separate entities, but that they interact via the pineal gland in the brain, except today roughly psychologists ignore this assumption. Materialism believes that the body and mind are the same and get ahead argues that all behaviour is based on physiology, because the mind appears to exist in the brain, thus all pure toneings, behaviours and thoughts ultimately have a biological and physical cause. Also, they believe that behaviour has a genetic basis, because genes have evolved over millions of long time to adapt behavio ur to the environment. Heredity, focuses on the biological transmission of personal characteristics from one generation of individuals to the next. Natural selection is a process resulting in the survival of those individuals from a population of animals or plants that are best adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions. The survivors tend to produce more offspring then those less well adapted, so that the characteristics of the population change over time, thus accounting for the process of evolution. (World English Dictionary (2009) onlineAs an admirer of Charles Darwins theory of evolution, Dr. Louis Leakey believed studying chimpanzees might bring great insight into our own evolutionary past, and fosterered fund Jane Goodalls field research with Gombe chimpanzees in 1957. Here she visualiseed, as expected, that chimpanzees exemplify behaviors similar to that of human cultures around the world. Adult behavior is reflected in the infants not transmitted genetically but culturally, as variations occur from one group of chimpanzees to another, like scientists assume also occurred with our distant human ancestors. (Leakey origin (2012) online).Chimpanzees in certain parts of West Africa crack open nuts with a piece of wood. Others use a stone, or place the nuts on a wood or stone anvil first. Chimps in other areas dont use any such tools, although on that points no lack of wood, stones, or the same kinds of nuts. On the west side of the Sassandra River in the Ivory Coast, nut-cracking is popular. No chimpanzees do it on the east side of the river, although the two groups are closely related genetically. Researchers use such criteria to rule out the possibility that nut-cracking behavior is inheritable. (The Harvard University Gazette (1999) online)When looking upon a biological model, one may find The Medical of Abnormality model, which has been of great importance to the psychiatric profession the past one hundred years. This model operates from the belief that mental illnesses resemble physical illnesses, thus they can equally be key outd and handleJust as physical illnesses are caused by disease producing germs, genetic factors, biochemical imbalances or changes to the nervous system, it is assumed that this is also true of mental illnesses. (AS Psychology (2007) online)A patient with symptoms of depression could be diagnosed with an imbalance of brain chemicals. Because this is viewed as a physical illness, cures could be medication to re-establish the balance of chemicals or in unvoiced cases Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) (AS Psychology (2007). A problem with this perception of mental illnesses is that physical illnesses can rely on objective symptoms such as broken castanets and blood pressure, whereas mental illnesses produce subjective symptoms, such as hearing voices and depression I am of the belief that if the patients symptoms cannot be measured, the treatment given to the patient can only be based on a ju dgement of experience by the doctor, hence its general effect is questionable, as most individuals fight differently to given situations, and may portray symptoms of one mental illness, but suffer from a yet unknown mental illness.Physiologies influence on behaviorScientists have discovered that there are specific areas in the brain that operate particular behaviors and abilities i.e. the cerebrum, frontal lobe is concerned with behaviour. Hypothalamus is in charge of sexual maturation, moods and motivating and at last hormonal body processes control the pituitary gland. ThusPhysical damage to the brain (biological) can result in mental disorders (psychological). Psychological factors can be mental disorders, predispositions (which are largely biological), sense of well-being, motivation, perception, cognition, etc. (Yahoo Answers (2009) online)One of the major discussions within psychology is the nature-nurture debate, which is concerned with the extent to which particular aspec ts of behavior are a product of either inherited (genetic/nature) or acquired (learned/nurture) characteristics (Simply Psychology (2007) online).(Simply Psychology (2007) online)As seen above, some schools of thought believe that behavior can be changed/influenced through physiological influences, where as others believe that everyone is simply born with specific behavioral traits. In studies including rats, the role of the hippocampus in learning and memory has been studied. This can be achieved through surgical removal of the hippocampus from a rats brain followed by an assessment of memory tasks by that same rat. The Maguire study (2000) used MRI technology to scan living brains, and thereby investigate the relationship amid the hippocampus and memory. This MRI technique enabled the researchers to gain lots of quantitative and objective data and they discovered that the hippocampus plays an especially important role in processing and remembering spatial and contextual informati on short-term, which does affects behavior to some extent, when certain things can/cannot be processed or remembered. Additionally, as our knowledge within genetics expands, modernistic discoveries are made. The Human Genome Project for example has focused on tracing types of behavior to particular strands of DNA located on specific chromosomes, but studies within this field have also started with animal experiments, who have set the path for humans the genetic mechanisms of many species (nematode worms, fruit flies, fish or mice) work in precisely the same manner as in humans, and in the mouse there are counterparts for most human genes. (Nuffieldbioethics n.k. online) nigh scientists argue that much of the research in this area is very beneficial, as it can be used to diagnose and develop treatments and therapies for illnesses or problems. The main applications of the physiological approach in modern days, have been the development of anti-depressant drugs, where changing a chemi cal in the brain causes changes in complex emotions, tho known side effects of the drugs are still an issue (Holah n.k. online). save, treatments excluding drugs and merely focusing on the psychological aspects within depressions also exist. Some of the main treatments includeMindfulness Therapy a form of self-awareness training taken from Buddhist mindfulness meditation, focusing on mood regulation and preventing relapses and accepting things for what they are.cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) people learn to logically look upon their negative thoughts about the world and themselves, and how these negative thoughts affect their mood. CBT perceive negative thoughts as a tog that can be changed.Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) this area purposes to change an individuals interpersonal behaviour by enabeling amendments to existing interpersonal situations and roles.Psychotherapies extended treatment where a bond mingled with a therapist and patient is created, alongside and appreciatio n and focus on the past and present, is believed to resolve the patients depression.Councelling here the patient is being helped with problems arising in the family or at work. If the incident is very resent, crisis counseling is sometimes used.Nerrative Therapy this area helps patients focus on their strengths in past situations and build on their resilience rather than the nagatives. The patient describes his problems as stories, and is helped to discover how these may restrict the patient in overcoming his difficulties in life.(Google Docs n.k. online)Underpinning concepts within the evolutionary psychology approachThe evolutionary perspective focuses on the connection between psychology and evolution, stating that the sole purpose of mental processes is to help survival and enable evolution (Buzzle (2011) online). This approach is strongly allied to the biological approach, as they both shelter the importance of biological factors.One cannot mention the word evolutionary withou t mentioning Charles Darwin. Although his initial aim was to comprehend the diversity of species in the world, he gradually came to realise that his theory went beyond basic biology, and he eventually set out to establish the evolutionary elements to modern human behaviour. Darwins aim was to uncover the function and structure of the mind, however the basic concept behind the theory of evolution was that all species originate from simple life forms, and these first developed more than three billion years ago, roughly 1.5 billion years after the Earth was created. The theory is based on five key observations and conclusions, which have been drawn from them1) Species have great fertility. They project more offspring than can grow to adulthood.2) Populations remain roughly the same size, with modest fluctuations.3) Food resources are limited, but are relatively constant most of the time.4) In sexually reproducing species, generally no two individuals are identical. Variation is rampa nt.5) Much of this variation is heritable. (Space Motion (2010) online)From reading these observations, one can argue that within environments, individiduals would have to struggle to survive, and not all their young will survive, thus those with the best genes and traits, are more likely to survive so their genes can be passed on to their young, and these can be carried on and combined with other strong traits from other individuals when reproducing. This is also known under the term natural selection, which will be looked at further on in the paper.The moderations to Darwins evolutionary theory came after his passing, thus sociobiology came to be out of the work of evolutionary biologists in the 1960s. Edward O. Wilson (1975) attempted to explain all animal and human social behaviour in terms of evolution and a range of other biological principles. This area concentrated on the evolutionary origins of behaviour, and often implied rigid genetic control. He apply the principles of sociobiology and evolution to comprehend and explain the behavior of social insects and other animals, including humans, and this established sociobiology as a new scientific field. Wilson believed that free will is an illusion, and that behaviour is a combined product of past experiences, heredity and environmental stimuli. Ever since, many principles have been applied to study topics addressed by the social sciences, including psychology. Evolutionary psychologists have criticised sociobiologists for ignoring the crucial part the mind plays in establishing the bond between behaviour and genes.Thus, evolutionary Psychology is a side product of sociobiology, however it is also known under the names neo or modern Darwinism. Evolutionary psychology is a method to the psychological sciences, where results and principles arise from cognitive sciences, neuroscience, evolutionary biology and anthropology and these areas are integrated with basic psychology to gain knowledge of human natu re. Rose (2000) explainsThe declared aim of evolutionary psychology is to provide explanations for the patterns of human activity and the forms of organisation of human society which take into account the fact that humans are animals, and like all other currently living organisms, are the present-day products of some four billion years of evolution (Gross, R. (2009) P.31)The purpose of evolutionary psychology is to bring the working(a) way of thinking about biological mechanisms (immune system) into the subject of psychology, and to approach psychological mechanisms likewise. It is closely related to biology (sociobiology), however key differences between the two are still evident, one of them being the importance of the mismatch theory, supported by the evolutionary approach. This mismatch occurs, when organisms are suited to an ancestral environment, and are brought into a new and changed environment. For instance, more people are annually killed by guns than snakes, however ma jority of people have learned to dread snakes, more than lizards for instance. One reason could be that snakes were a risk to our human ancestors who lived in a Pleistocene environment, where guns did not exist. Thus, a mismatch is created between our modern environment and our learned- fear reaction from our ancestors. Also, biological principles rely heavily on the present and what can be studied today, whereas evolutionary approach compares the past with the present, hoping to uncover unknown information.Some concepts within evolutionary psychology come from general evolutionary theory, also known as evolutionary biology. For instance, what evolutionary biologists have discovered on mating and sexual behaviour, have been discovered through a range of observations and experiments on, for instance, the consequences of altering the parental investments in offspring and seeing what effect this will have on the offspring afterward on in life. Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, argued tha t the human brain functions like a computer, hence mental processes act as computational operations, thus a optical image of a spider will lead to a reaction possibly a reaction of fear of, perhaps, dangerous insects. Therefore evolutionary psychologists argue that human beings and some animals are biologically prepared to acquire certain kinds of fear at different times of their life span. Some scientists argue that our fear reaction to certain animals, can be remains of ancient primate ancestors, who evolved a fear response to dangerous animals, and this mechanism has been passed on to the modern human being. Additionally, we may be subject to the same reactions to snakes, as in an experiment where Rhesus monkeys who were raised within a laboratory showed no fear of snakes, however this changed immediately after they experienced a wild Rhesus reaction when exposed to a snake (Google Docs (1998). This was also experienced in the little Albert experiment in 1920 by John B. Watson, w here 9 month old Albert was exposed to certain stimuli such as a rat, a monkey, a rabbit, ruin newspapers and finally masks, while observing his reactions to these stimuli. To begin with he showed no signs of fear, however after Watson began to hit a piece of metal every time the boy was shown one of the animals, he came to associate the animals with the sounds, which made him cry with fear. However, one can argue that this computerised theory can be highly difficult to test, because we cannot conclusively know how our ancestors reacted mentally, and and then we cannot know to what extent we have differed in brain capability in comparison to our ancestors or similarities in fear reactions we can only assume what their mental states and reactions were like.The law that an organism can learn to associate any stimulus to any response with equal ease thrived, was supported by Pavlovs hound experiment. However this law was dis prove in the 1950-60s by John Garcia and his rat experiment s, where they were exposed to X-ray radiation that made then ill, and because of this they stopped drinking their sweetened water. This occurred although they did not feel the extent of the X-ray sickness until later, although Pavlov had stated that the reward/punishment should be given straight after the occurrence, for the animal to learn. Additionally, experiments that have been carried out on birds, to discover if they could separate what is good for them and what will make them sick, have illustrated that, because birds are highly visual like us humans and associate visual cues with sickness, they can learn to avoid geen food pellets (which make them sick), and eat only yellow pellets which are okay. If they were presented with pellets half-coloured geen and half-coloured yellow, the birds would peck at the pellets until they split into halfs and only eat the yellow part. Thus, the experiment proved that birds are biologically cued to associate a visual cue with sickness (Googl e Docs (1998).Natural Selection, Cognitive behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Animal TherapyDarwins theory of natural selecetion originates from a belief that conception does not always have birth as an outcome, and only a number of those who survive will reach an age where they themselves can reproduce. An examples can be alligators, where I know from work, that from the age of 12 when a wild female will reach due date, she will lay approximately 40 eggs a year, however out of all the eggs she will lay in a lifetime, it is estimated that only three of her young will reach maturity and get to reproduce. An assumption within Darwins theory is that the young who get to reproduce, will also be those with the best traits and be better adapted to the existing environment and pass on these traits thus each generation will be better adapted to the given environmental changes. An astonishing examples of adaption can be seen in H. B. D. Kettlewells observations of peppered moths in the 19th Cent ury. Because of the industrial activity and burning of coal in England around this period, tree trunks turned from light to soothed dark colours and the peppered moth could not hide as easily. In 1848, reports of a new form of the peppered moth (Dark-coloured peppered moth) were made, which was darker and could easily hide on the darkened tree trunks. However in recent years, the burning of cleaner fuels have once again changed the environment, and the peppered moth has returned in great numbers and some biologists now believe that the dark-coloured peppered moth will be extinct in England in a few decades (Miller Levine (1999) online)Natural selection also focuses on a native instinct, where we not only physically but also mentally are challenged, where only the strongest individuals will survive. I believe that in our modern day and age, we challenge this natural process by allowing the weak to live and pass on their genes, creating a more vulnerable species, both physically and mentally. Thus, we continue to develop medicines, surgeries and therapies to counteract these issue, and try to get a greater understanding of how they came to be. Through the help of medicine and psychological therapies, one can interfere with mental states, where a therapist can help modify a patients way of though, to go against his/her primal destructive instincts.Cognitive Therapy focuses on the assumption, that mentally and the way we think about things, can be the cause of mental health problems as phobias, which can have physical symptoms as well (nausea, stomach aches, hyperventilation etc.). Within this form of therapy the patient is made aware of what thoughts are destructive, worsening their condition, and they get a greater understanding of how their thought processes work. When these aims have been accomplished, the patient can work on changing the way he/she thinks and work on avoiding destructive thoughts. Within this field, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is found, c ontaining traits of both Behavioural Therapy and Cognitive Therapy, thus CBT helps the patient change how they think (cognitive) and how they react to those thoughts (behavioural), and this form of therapy is thought to be one of the most beneficial treatments for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (NHS (2010), however Dr. Oliver James has strongly criticised CBT and has quoted Professor Drew Westons findings in 2004, that two years after treatment, two-thirds of those who had CBT have relapsed or sought further help. (Psychminded (2009) online)Furthermore, James argues that cognitive analytic therapy and the Hoffman Process are far better alternatives than CBT, when attempting to solve problems relating to depression and anxiety, as these focus on the patients childhood and the origin of the depression/anxiety, where CBT focuses more on the here-and-now aspects of the disorders.For centuries people have been aware of the unconditional bonds that can be created b etween humans and animals, and pets have been used in medical settings for more than 150 years, however evidence of the physical, emotional and mental benefits have not been scientifically proven until recent years. This area is now known under the term Animal Therapy, and is to some extent an integrating of animal behaviour and cognitive therapy. The animals, such as dogs, elephants, dolphins etc., help to heal humans, young and old, physically, emotionally and mentally. It has been proven through experiments and observations, thatHaving an animal around reduces stress, creates a relationship, helps people feel loved and needed, provides a listening ear without judgment and it can improve social skills and boost the self-confidence of an individual.(World Wide Health (2006) online)Recently, studies at the Research Center for Human/Animal Interaction have discovered that interacting with animals can increase peoples level of the hormone oxytocin, which help us feel happy. Also, th is hormone does not only benefit us mentally but also physically, as it is part of the process when the body grows new cells. Animal Therapy can also be applied to only the animal, where animals presenting abnormal behaviour, can be helped by talks with the owners, psychological/physical training and regularise therapy. Abnormal and uncontrollable behaviour of pets is also a rising problem in Denmark, where it is estimated that majority of danish pet owners have encountered problems with their pets behaviour. In a study carried out in 2000-2001, a range of pet owners were asked if they had encountered behavioural problems with their dogs, and 28% answered yes, where 17% stated that they had previously encountered problems. Furthermore, vetenarian Jrgen Mikkelsen estimates that each year 1 / 4 of all the dogs being euthanized in Denmark (roughly 200 danish clinics), were because of behavioural problems, and 2 / 5 of the dogs never reached the age of 3. Therefore a rough estimate con cludes that 10-15.000 dogs are euthanized every year in Denmark because of behavioural problems (Dansk Veterinrtidsskrift (2006) online). However, animal therapy is gaining more and more ground in Denmark, and more clinics are opened within the country, proving that people are seeking this form of treatment more than forwards, and the awareness of the animals needs are more widely accepted, encouraging a closer animal-human bond.The relationship between scientific research and psychology as a disciplineEventually psychology was accepted as a science, although its subject matter was restricted. In the late mid-fifties and early 1960s, attention was placed upon mental processes and the mind. Behaviourists focused on observing phenomenon, where psychologists concentrated on studying the mental processes used to retrieve, store and acquire knowledge. Although mental processes cannot be observed as such, evidence can be gained by using a number of tests concerned with memory, perception and problem solving. Here cognitive psychology becomes of great importance, as it studies mental processes such as intelligence, memory, perception and thought.Because psychology operates with what cannot always be seen, at least in the past before we invented ways of discovering brain activities and their reactions to the surroundings we can see (MRI scans). Part of this has helped psychology become a scientific field, because it can be observed, measured and compared. Without this bond, psychology would never have been accepted as a science, and areas which are being researched today (for instance physiologies influence on behaviour), would never have existed or been made possible, and would have limited the ongoing knowledge that we posses within this area today. Also, medicine and biology have benefitted from the merger, as mental illnesses have been identified through psychological practices and treatments have been found. Many mental illnesses are approached with medicine as well as therapy, illustrating this merger in reality.Traditional and historical theories within psychology have all undergone changes throughout history, when knowledge has been gained in common ground areas, or new psychologists have decided to approach the matter from different angles. Darwins theory of evolution was challenged by believers, who approached evolutionary psychology from different views, which, as mentioned previously has resulted in sociobiology, physiological psychology and biology psychology, amongst others. I believe that therapies as mentioned above, can be perceive as a result of Darwin, Tinbergen, Lorenz Karl von Frisch, Wilson and Trivers, amongst others, theories which have influenced and challenged each other, and resulted in treatments and knowledge which benefits this branch of modern psychology, as illustrated in the number of therapies offered to patients today.Specialisms where integration is evidentSpecialisms where integration is evident in practic e is for instance evolutionary psychology, which is a combination of evolutionary as well as cogn